Bombarded with the facts of an overabundance of energy use, food stores dwindling, and the over-population of the world, I am not sure if anyone should reproduce. Of course, I already have one biological child and do not feel the great pull to make sure a part of me lives on in the world.
Prices for food and gas skyrocket, disproportionate to the cost of living increasing. I have four children and the price for groceries alone is enough to question why anyone has children anymore. With that in mind, many pregnancies are unwanted and the adoption rate does not come close to helping those in need. The dichotomy of starving and unwanted children in the world to the obese 100 lbs 5 year olds on Jerry Springer disgusts me.
Although I hate to think about regulating the number of children individuals in a society can have, it may be a start to controlling some of the resource depletion that threatens our world. How can we expect to feed and house our growing populations? One possible solution would be one child allowed and you have to pay substantial fees to have more. That seems against the principles of our democratic society though and very elitist.
I hope over time that technology will enhance our ability to save our world and allow for our free standing society in which we have a food surplus, no one starves, the world is is safe from the evils of greenhouse gases and radiation, and the world will become more stable in the economy. But realistically, I cannot see that happening and can only hope that the we can outlast what we have done to the world.
Tuesday, May 13, 2008
Self Eval
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
I am just happy to be done at this point even though not everything is turned in. After I got behind from being sick, I did all of unit 3 and 4 since May 6 and I am tired.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
Everything. I got so behind in my 5 classes that all my work suffered. And I really hate my moving limb. It is ugly. I didn't have time to paint it.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
Honestly, I have no idea. All of my work is not in and I will be happy if I pass at this point.
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
Not get sick, not have surgery, don't hit every branch of the procrastination tree on the way down even if I have a good reason.
List of Species Lab-Unit 4
Homo Sapien
My husband
Symbiotic
Domesticated :)
Canis Lupus Familiaris
Dog (4 out of the 6 I have)
Symbiotic
Domesticated
http://www.the-lizard-lounge.com/content/gallery/lizard-pictures/green-anole-pictures/green-anole-01.jpg
Anolis Carolinensis
Green anole (Have 2)
Mutualistic
Not domesticated
http://www.petzoo.co.uk/images/Picture%20667.jpg
Eublepharis Macularis
Leopard Gecko (Have 1)
Mutualistic
Not domesticated
http://jspatel.myweb.uga.edu/images/image007.jpg
Lactobacillus Acidophilus
Yogurt bacteria
Commensal
Domesticated
http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/pictures22/cdc/PHIL_3050_lores.jpg
Trichophyton
Ringworm
Parasitic
Not domesticated
http://millrace.files.wordpress.com/2007/06/blackwidow.jpg
Latrodectus matrans
Black Widow Spider
Predator
Not domesticated
http://www.caminoanimalclinic.com/articles/images/snake07.gif
Crotalus Atrox
Western Diamondback Rattlesnake
Mutualistic
Not domesticated
http://i210.photobucket.com/albums/bb192/shncjj/IMG_2355.jpg
Ocimum Basilicum
Sweet Basil
Mutualistic
Domesticated
http://doreen.mkbmemorial.com/NF/photos/mrsa-nora-2004.jpg
Staphylococcus Aureus
MRSA
Parasitic
Not domesticated
Lavendula Angustifolia
Lavender
Mutualistic
Domesticated
http://www.candbsupplies.ca/roman-chamomile.gif
Chamamelum Nobile
Chamomile
Mutualistic
Domesticated
http://pestcommand.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/12/dust_mite.jpg
Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus
Dust mite
Parasitic
Not domesticated
Cannabis Sativa
Marijuana
Commensal (job security)
Domesticated
http://www.sumivector.com/images/stories/medium/rift-valley-fever_med.jpg
Coccidioides Immitis
Valley Fever
Parasitic
Not domesticated
http://www.nga.gov/feature/sculpturegarden/plantings/summer/images/heliotrope-fs.jpg
Heliotropium arborescens
Heliotrope flower
Mutualistic
Domesticated
http://www.cooperis.com/quizzes/cheese.jpg
Heiphinic Wotis
Cheese
Mutualistic
Domesticated
http://www.herbalextractsplus.com/images/herbs/avocado-bsp.jpg
Persea Americana
Avocado
Mutualistic
Domesticated
http://www.thriftyfun.com/images/articles16/skunk298x300.jpg
Mephitis Mephitis
Skunk
Mutualistic
Not domesticated
http://www.astrographics.com/GalleryPrints/Display/GP2144.jpg
Escherichia Coli
Intestinal bacteria
Symbiotic/Parasitic
Not domesticated
Working Limb Lab Project
This project highlights the ability to show and understand the concept of a moving limb and the neuron triggering muscle to pull on bone to make a joint move. I chose the joint between the humerus and the ulna and radius at the elbow.
Limb construct equipment
I began the initial project with:
Beginning of the elbow joint
Bicep brachii (contracted) across humerus to radius
Tricep brachii (contracted) across humerus to ulna
Humerus
Ulna and Radius
I recycled some of my cell from unit one to show a muscle fiber:
Muscle fiber
A muscle fiber slides by contraction and relaxation. When the myofibrils contract, the sacromeres shorten. Thick filaments are composed of several hundred molecules of myosin, which end in a cross bridge on the globular head. Thin filaments are primarily 2 intertwining strands of the protein actin. 2 other proteins, troponin and tropomyosin, play a role. When muscles are stimulated, impulses travel down a T tubule and calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. ATP supplies the energy for the muscle contraction. Calcium binds to tronoponin, exposing mysoin receptor sites. Myosin then uses ATP to pull actin toward the center of the sarcomere.
Sarcomeres relaxed
Calcium binds to tronoponin, exposing mysoin receptor sites. Myosin then uses ATP to pull actin toward the center of the sarcomere.
Calcium binds to troponin, exposing myosin receptor sites.
Sarcomeres contract after myosin utilizes ATP to pull actin toward center of sarcomere
I learned a great deal in this lab regarding limb and muscle movement. The chemical reactions that take place on the microscopic level allow for the movement that we can see at a much larger level.
Limb construct equipment
I began the initial project with:
- Humerus: wide piece of trim
- Radius: wood piece
- Ulna: wood piece
- Bicep brachii and tricep brachii: rubberbands (anchored with push pins)
- Elbow joint: hinge and screws
Beginning of the elbow joint
Bicep brachii (contracted) across humerus to radius
Tricep brachii (contracted) across humerus to ulna
Humerus
Ulna and Radius
I recycled some of my cell from unit one to show a muscle fiber:
- Sarcolemma: purple ribbon
- Myofibril: groups of dark pink beads
- Mitochondria: light pink beads
- Sarcoplasm: white styrofoam
Muscle fiber
A muscle fiber slides by contraction and relaxation. When the myofibrils contract, the sacromeres shorten. Thick filaments are composed of several hundred molecules of myosin, which end in a cross bridge on the globular head. Thin filaments are primarily 2 intertwining strands of the protein actin. 2 other proteins, troponin and tropomyosin, play a role. When muscles are stimulated, impulses travel down a T tubule and calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. ATP supplies the energy for the muscle contraction. Calcium binds to tronoponin, exposing mysoin receptor sites. Myosin then uses ATP to pull actin toward the center of the sarcomere.
Sarcomeres relaxed
Calcium binds to tronoponin, exposing mysoin receptor sites. Myosin then uses ATP to pull actin toward the center of the sarcomere.
Calcium binds to troponin, exposing myosin receptor sites.
Sarcomeres contract after myosin utilizes ATP to pull actin toward center of sarcomere
I learned a great deal in this lab regarding limb and muscle movement. The chemical reactions that take place on the microscopic level allow for the movement that we can see at a much larger level.
Monday, May 12, 2008
Leeches - Online Lab
This lab simulates dissection and simulation of neuron activity in a leech.
1. What is the electrode measuring?
The electrode is measuring the voltage of individual neurons.
2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments?
Leeches have large, easily accessible neurons in their nerve cord.
3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?
A sensory neuron takes nerve impulses from a sensory receptor to the CNS. A motor neuron takes nerve impulses away from the CNS to an effector.
4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain?
I think a leech experiences pain. Pain is a response from the damage of tissues carried through the neurons by neurotransmitters.
5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab?
Me trying to overcome my computer illiteracy and I actually thought the background information on the leeches was extremely interesting.
6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab?
Only my computer and procrastination as usual. You think I would learn, even if I have a good excuse.
1. What is the electrode measuring?The electrode is measuring the voltage of individual neurons.
2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments?
Leeches have large, easily accessible neurons in their nerve cord.
3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?
A sensory neuron takes nerve impulses from a sensory receptor to the CNS. A motor neuron takes nerve impulses away from the CNS to an effector.
4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain?
I think a leech experiences pain. Pain is a response from the damage of tissues carried through the neurons by neurotransmitters.
5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab?
Me trying to overcome my computer illiteracy and I actually thought the background information on the leeches was extremely interesting.
6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab?
Only my computer and procrastination as usual. You think I would learn, even if I have a good excuse.
Compendium Review: Reproductive System and Development and Aging
Reproductive System
Table of Contents
Human Life Cycle
Male Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
Female Hormone Levels
Control of Reproduction
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Human Life Cycle
The reproductive cycle in males and females differs greatly. Sexual maturity in females occurs between the ages of 11-13 and in males from 14-16. DNA is distributed among 46 chromosomes within the nucleus. Mitosis (duplication division) occurs in cells other than reproductive cells. The reproductive system uses mitosis (reduction division). Each reproductive cell contains 23 chromosomes rather than 46 in other cells.
http://courses.bio.psu.edu/fall2005/biol110/tutorials/tutorial2_files/fig_13_3.jpg
Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system includes the following: testes, epididymides, vasa deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, bulbourethral, and the penis.
http://www.drstandley.com/images/male.gif
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/sex/common/ibank/ibank/0053.jpg
The penis is the male organ of sexual intercourse. The penis has a long shaft and an enlarged tip called the glans penis, which at birth is covered by a layer of skin. Circumcision is the surgical removal of the penis foreskin.
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/10223.jpg
Spongy, erectile tissue containing distensible blood spaces extends through the shaft of the penis. During arousal, autonomic nerves release nitric oxide (NO) This leads to the production of cGMP which causes the smooth muscle of incoming arterial walls to relax and the erectile tissue to fill with blood. The veins that take blood away from the penis are compressed and the penis becomes erect.
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/sex/common/ibank/ibank/0045.jpg
The testes produce sperm and the male sex hormones. They lie outside the abdominal cavity within the scrotum. The seminiferous tubules are packed with cells undergoing spermatogenesis (production of sperm). Mature sperm has 3 distinct parts: a head, middle piece, and tail. Mitochondria in the middle piece provide energy for the tail movement.
http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/114-11/sperm.jpg
Sex cells reproduce with meiosis as opposed to mitosis. Spermatogenesis occurs as follows:
http://umanitoba.ca/science/biological_sciences/lab14/images/Spermatogenesis.jpg
The hypothalamus has ultimate control of the testes' sexual function because it secretes a hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). There are 2 gonadotropic hormones: follicle-stimulating (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which are present in both males and females. In males, FSH promotes the production of sperm in the seminiferous tubules. LH controls the production of testosterone. Testosterone is the main sex hormone and essential for the normal development and functioning of the male organs.
http://www.dva.gov.au/health/menshealth/images/04_hormones.gif
Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, and vagina.
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=55703&rendTypeId=4
The ovaries release one egg a month and fertilization occurs in the oviduct. Development occurs in the uterus. The vagina is the birth canal as well as the organ for sexual intercourse and outlet for menstrual flow. Development of the embryo and fetus takes place in the uterus.
The external organs of the female are known collectively as the vulva.
http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/rburkett/repro_12.jpg
Upon sexual stimulation, the labia minora, the vaginal wall, and the clitoris become engorged with blood. The breasts also swell and the nipples become erect. The labia majora enlarge, redden, and spread away from the vaginal opening. Orgasm occurs the height of sexual response. Unlike males, females have no refractory period and can have multiple orgasms in a single sexual experience.
Female Hormone Levels
Female hormone levels cycle on a monthly basis and the ovarian cycle drives the uterine cycle. An ovary contains many follicles and each one contains an immature egg, called an oocyte. A female is born with as many as 2 million follicles, but is reduced to 300,000-400,000 by puberty. During oogenesis, a single follicle actually goes through all stages in one place within the ovary. As the follicle matures, layers of follicel cells surround a secondary oocyte. Eventually, the mature follicle ruptures, the secondary oocyte is released. The follicle then becomes the corpus luteum which eventually disintegrates.
http://www.tarleton.edu/~anatomy/oogenesis.jpg
The ovarian cycle:
http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/upload/2006/04/cycle_lg.jpg
Estrogen and progesterone affect not only the uterus, but other parts of the body as well. Estrogen is largely responsible for secondary sex characteristics in females. Menopause is a period in a woman's life where the ovarian cycle ceases. This occurs around 45-55 years of age.
Estrogen and progesterone have other functions, one affecting the endometrium causing the uterus to undergo a cyclical series of events known as the uterine cycle:
http://www.tarleton.edu/~anatomy/folliclecycle.jpg
Following unprotected sexual intercourse, many sperm will most likely make their way into the oviduct, where the egg is located following ovulation. Only one sperm fertilizes the egg and it becomes a zygote, which begins development as it travels down the oviduct to the uterus. The endometrium is now prepared to receive the developing embryo.
http://www.jillstanek.com/archives/fertilization.jpg
Control of Reproduction
Several methods are available to both dampen and enhance our reproductive potential. Birth control methods are used to regulate the number of children an individual or couple will have. Abstinence is the most reliable form of birth control and also prevents the transmission of STD's.
Other methods of birth control are as follows:
http://www.femcap.com/images/birth_control_methods.jpg
http://www.plannedparenthood.org/mar-monte/images/Mar%20Monte/bc_methods_english.gif
Sterilization is a surgical option that is relatively permanent as the success rate of fertility after reconnection is 50%.
Infertility is the failure of a couple to achieve pregnancy after one year of regular, unprotected intercourse. The most common cause of infertility in males is low sperm count and/or a large proportion of abnormal sperm. In women, body weight is the largest factor. The higher the weight, the less of a chance of conception.
Assisted reproductive technologies are available for infertile couples:
Sexually transmitted diseases are caused by viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi, and animals.
http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbio/stds.JPG
Genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI). The virus infects the skin and mucous membranes. There are more than 40 HPV types that can infect the genital areas of men and women, including the skin of the penis, vulva (area outside the vagina), and anus, and the linings of the vagina, cervix, and rectum. You cannot see HPV. Most people who become infected with HPV do not even know they have it.
Development and Aging
Table of Contents
Fertilization
Pre-embryonic and Embryonic Development
Fetal Development
Pregnancy and Birth
Development After Birth
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg to a zygote. The acrosome of a sperm releases enzymes that digest a pathway for the sperm through the zona pellucida. The sperm nucleus enters the egg and fuses with the egg nucleus.
http://www.chariho.k12.ri.us/cms/library/images/reproduction/fertilization3.jpg
Pre-embryonic and Embryonic Development
Cleavage, growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation are the processes of development.
The extraembryonic membranes are not part of the embryo and fetus; instead they are outside the embryo. The extraembryonic membranes have the following functions:
http://img.tfd.com/dorland/thumbs/amnion.jpg
Development encompasses the events from fertilization to birth. Pre-embryonic development encompasses the events from the first week.
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/2002_general/Esp/folder_structure/re/m2/s2/assets/images/rem2s2_1.jpg
Embryonic development begins with the second week and lasts until the end of the second month. During implantation, the chorion secretes enzymes to digest away some of the tissue and blood vessels of the endometruim and uterus and begins to secrete human chorionic gonadotropin. The start of the major event called gastrulation turns the inner cell mass into the embryonic disk.
Fetal development begins in the third month and the uterus is the size of a grapefruit.
http://www.cerebralpalsychildren.com/CP1.jpg
Development of Male and Female Genitals
The sex of an individual is determined at the moment of fertilization. Males have a pair of chromosomes designated XY and females have XX. During the first several weeks of development, it is impossible to tell the gender of an unborn child by external inspection.
http://www.mfi.ku.dk/PPaulev/chapter29/images/29-1.jpg
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/sex/common/ibank/ibank/0058b.jpg
Sometimes, abnormalities in genital development occur. Some XY indivisuals develop into females and some XX individuals develop into males. In androgen insensitivity syndrome, the 3 types of hormones are produced by testes, but the individual develops as a female because the plasma membrane receptors for testosterone are ineffective. True gonadal hermaphroditism in which a person has both ovarian and testicular tissue is rare. However, about 1% of the population has psuedohermaproditism. The individual has testes, but appears to be a normal female until puberty.
Pregnancy and Birth
Major changes take place in the mother's body during pregnancy: energy levels fluctuate, the uterus relaxes, the pulmonary values increase, possible stress incontinence, edema, varicose veins, and of course, stretch marks. The uterus has contractions throughout the pregnancy. False labor contractions are called Braxton-Hicks contractions. Labor has 3 stages.
http://www.stewwebb.com/Amanda%20Birth.jpg
Development After Birth
Development does not cease once birth has occurred. Aging encompasses the progressive changes that contribute to an increased risk of infirmity, disease, and death. There are many hypotheses regarding aging: genetic, a whole body process, and/or other extrinsic factors. Aging affects our body systems in different ways: less elasticity in the skin, collagen fibers decrease, fewer sweat glands, fewer hair follicles, cardiovascular disorders, respiratory disorders, lower blood supply to various organs, constipation, heart burn, gastritis, cancer, neuron death due to a lack of O2 from reduced blood flow, loss of skeletal muscle mass, decline in bone density, arthritis, and hormone level decrease.
http://www.forpeaceofmind.com.au/Vol7/media/images/special_features-medicine_mismanagement-2.jpg
References:
Human Reproduction. (2008). www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/n100/2k4ch39repronotes.html
Mader, S. (2008). Reproductive System and Development and Aging. Human Biology 10th Ed. (p 319-352)
Sexual Development. (2008). www.themediaproject.com/facts/development/lifecycle.htm
Table of Contents
Human Life Cycle
Male Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
Female Hormone Levels
Control of Reproduction
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Human Life Cycle
The reproductive cycle in males and females differs greatly. Sexual maturity in females occurs between the ages of 11-13 and in males from 14-16. DNA is distributed among 46 chromosomes within the nucleus. Mitosis (duplication division) occurs in cells other than reproductive cells. The reproductive system uses mitosis (reduction division). Each reproductive cell contains 23 chromosomes rather than 46 in other cells.
http://courses.bio.psu.edu/fall2005/biol110/tutorials/tutorial2_files/fig_13_3.jpg
Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system includes the following: testes, epididymides, vasa deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, bulbourethral, and the penis.
http://www.drstandley.com/images/male.gif
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/sex/common/ibank/ibank/0053.jpg
The penis is the male organ of sexual intercourse. The penis has a long shaft and an enlarged tip called the glans penis, which at birth is covered by a layer of skin. Circumcision is the surgical removal of the penis foreskin.
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/10223.jpg
Spongy, erectile tissue containing distensible blood spaces extends through the shaft of the penis. During arousal, autonomic nerves release nitric oxide (NO) This leads to the production of cGMP which causes the smooth muscle of incoming arterial walls to relax and the erectile tissue to fill with blood. The veins that take blood away from the penis are compressed and the penis becomes erect.
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/sex/common/ibank/ibank/0045.jpg
The testes produce sperm and the male sex hormones. They lie outside the abdominal cavity within the scrotum. The seminiferous tubules are packed with cells undergoing spermatogenesis (production of sperm). Mature sperm has 3 distinct parts: a head, middle piece, and tail. Mitochondria in the middle piece provide energy for the tail movement.
http://www.ehponline.org/members/2006/114-11/sperm.jpg
Sex cells reproduce with meiosis as opposed to mitosis. Spermatogenesis occurs as follows:
http://umanitoba.ca/science/biological_sciences/lab14/images/Spermatogenesis.jpg
The hypothalamus has ultimate control of the testes' sexual function because it secretes a hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). There are 2 gonadotropic hormones: follicle-stimulating (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which are present in both males and females. In males, FSH promotes the production of sperm in the seminiferous tubules. LH controls the production of testosterone. Testosterone is the main sex hormone and essential for the normal development and functioning of the male organs.
http://www.dva.gov.au/health/menshealth/images/04_hormones.gif
Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, and vagina.
http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=55703&rendTypeId=4
The ovaries release one egg a month and fertilization occurs in the oviduct. Development occurs in the uterus. The vagina is the birth canal as well as the organ for sexual intercourse and outlet for menstrual flow. Development of the embryo and fetus takes place in the uterus.
The external organs of the female are known collectively as the vulva.
http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/rburkett/repro_12.jpg
Upon sexual stimulation, the labia minora, the vaginal wall, and the clitoris become engorged with blood. The breasts also swell and the nipples become erect. The labia majora enlarge, redden, and spread away from the vaginal opening. Orgasm occurs the height of sexual response. Unlike males, females have no refractory period and can have multiple orgasms in a single sexual experience.
Female Hormone Levels
Female hormone levels cycle on a monthly basis and the ovarian cycle drives the uterine cycle. An ovary contains many follicles and each one contains an immature egg, called an oocyte. A female is born with as many as 2 million follicles, but is reduced to 300,000-400,000 by puberty. During oogenesis, a single follicle actually goes through all stages in one place within the ovary. As the follicle matures, layers of follicel cells surround a secondary oocyte. Eventually, the mature follicle ruptures, the secondary oocyte is released. The follicle then becomes the corpus luteum which eventually disintegrates.
http://www.tarleton.edu/~anatomy/oogenesis.jpg
The ovarian cycle:
http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/upload/2006/04/cycle_lg.jpg
Estrogen and progesterone affect not only the uterus, but other parts of the body as well. Estrogen is largely responsible for secondary sex characteristics in females. Menopause is a period in a woman's life where the ovarian cycle ceases. This occurs around 45-55 years of age.
Estrogen and progesterone have other functions, one affecting the endometrium causing the uterus to undergo a cyclical series of events known as the uterine cycle:
http://www.tarleton.edu/~anatomy/folliclecycle.jpg
Following unprotected sexual intercourse, many sperm will most likely make their way into the oviduct, where the egg is located following ovulation. Only one sperm fertilizes the egg and it becomes a zygote, which begins development as it travels down the oviduct to the uterus. The endometrium is now prepared to receive the developing embryo.
http://www.jillstanek.com/archives/fertilization.jpg
Control of Reproduction
Several methods are available to both dampen and enhance our reproductive potential. Birth control methods are used to regulate the number of children an individual or couple will have. Abstinence is the most reliable form of birth control and also prevents the transmission of STD's.
Other methods of birth control are as follows:
http://www.femcap.com/images/birth_control_methods.jpg
http://www.plannedparenthood.org/mar-monte/images/Mar%20Monte/bc_methods_english.gif
Sterilization is a surgical option that is relatively permanent as the success rate of fertility after reconnection is 50%.
Infertility is the failure of a couple to achieve pregnancy after one year of regular, unprotected intercourse. The most common cause of infertility in males is low sperm count and/or a large proportion of abnormal sperm. In women, body weight is the largest factor. The higher the weight, the less of a chance of conception.
Assisted reproductive technologies are available for infertile couples:
- Artificial Insemination by donor
- In Vitro Fertilization
- Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer
- Surrogate mothers
- Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection
Sexually transmitted diseases are caused by viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi, and animals.
http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbio/stds.JPG
Genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI). The virus infects the skin and mucous membranes. There are more than 40 HPV types that can infect the genital areas of men and women, including the skin of the penis, vulva (area outside the vagina), and anus, and the linings of the vagina, cervix, and rectum. You cannot see HPV. Most people who become infected with HPV do not even know they have it.
Development and Aging
Table of Contents
Fertilization
Pre-embryonic and Embryonic Development
Fetal Development
Pregnancy and Birth
Development After Birth
Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg to a zygote. The acrosome of a sperm releases enzymes that digest a pathway for the sperm through the zona pellucida. The sperm nucleus enters the egg and fuses with the egg nucleus.
http://www.chariho.k12.ri.us/cms/library/images/reproduction/fertilization3.jpg
Pre-embryonic and Embryonic Development
Cleavage, growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation are the processes of development.
The extraembryonic membranes are not part of the embryo and fetus; instead they are outside the embryo. The extraembryonic membranes have the following functions:
- Chorion: develops into the fetal half of the placenta
- Allantois: accumulates the small amount of urine produced by fetal kidneys
- Yolk Sac: first embryonic membrane to appear which contains blood vessels
- Amnion: enlarges as the fetus enlarges and contains cushion to protect the embryo
http://img.tfd.com/dorland/thumbs/amnion.jpg
Development encompasses the events from fertilization to birth. Pre-embryonic development encompasses the events from the first week.
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/2002_general/Esp/folder_structure/re/m2/s2/assets/images/rem2s2_1.jpg
Embryonic development begins with the second week and lasts until the end of the second month. During implantation, the chorion secretes enzymes to digest away some of the tissue and blood vessels of the endometruim and uterus and begins to secrete human chorionic gonadotropin. The start of the major event called gastrulation turns the inner cell mass into the embryonic disk.
Fetal development begins in the third month and the uterus is the size of a grapefruit.
http://www.cerebralpalsychildren.com/CP1.jpg
 | One MonthYour baby is an embryo consisting of two layers of cells from which all her organs and body parts will develop. |
 | Two MonthsYour baby is now about the size of a kidney bean and is constantly moving. He has distinct, slightly webbed fingers. |
 | Three MonthsBy now your baby is about 3 inches long and weighs nearly an ounce. Her tiny, unique fingerprints are now in place. |
 | Four MonthsYour baby is now about 5 inches long and weighs 5 ounces. His skeleton is starting to harden from rubbery cartilage to bone. |
 | Five MonthsEyebrows and eyelids are now in place. Your baby would now be more than 10 inches long if you stretched out her legs. |
 | Six MonthsYour baby weighs about a pound and a half. His wrinkled skin is starting to smooth out as he puts on baby fat. |
 | Seven MonthsBy now, your baby weighs about 3 pounds and is more than 15 inches long. She can open and close her eyes and follow a light. |
 | Eight MonthsYour baby now weighs about 4 3/4 pounds. His layers of fat are filling him out, making him rounder, and his lungs are well developed. |
 | Nine MonthsThe average baby is more than 19 inches long and weighs nearly 7 pounds now, but babies vary widely in size at this stage |
The sex of an individual is determined at the moment of fertilization. Males have a pair of chromosomes designated XY and females have XX. During the first several weeks of development, it is impossible to tell the gender of an unborn child by external inspection.
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Sometimes, abnormalities in genital development occur. Some XY indivisuals develop into females and some XX individuals develop into males. In androgen insensitivity syndrome, the 3 types of hormones are produced by testes, but the individual develops as a female because the plasma membrane receptors for testosterone are ineffective. True gonadal hermaphroditism in which a person has both ovarian and testicular tissue is rare. However, about 1% of the population has psuedohermaproditism. The individual has testes, but appears to be a normal female until puberty.
Pregnancy and Birth
Major changes take place in the mother's body during pregnancy: energy levels fluctuate, the uterus relaxes, the pulmonary values increase, possible stress incontinence, edema, varicose veins, and of course, stretch marks. The uterus has contractions throughout the pregnancy. False labor contractions are called Braxton-Hicks contractions. Labor has 3 stages.
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Development After Birth
Development does not cease once birth has occurred. Aging encompasses the progressive changes that contribute to an increased risk of infirmity, disease, and death. There are many hypotheses regarding aging: genetic, a whole body process, and/or other extrinsic factors. Aging affects our body systems in different ways: less elasticity in the skin, collagen fibers decrease, fewer sweat glands, fewer hair follicles, cardiovascular disorders, respiratory disorders, lower blood supply to various organs, constipation, heart burn, gastritis, cancer, neuron death due to a lack of O2 from reduced blood flow, loss of skeletal muscle mass, decline in bone density, arthritis, and hormone level decrease.
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References:
Human Reproduction. (2008). www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/n100/2k4ch39repronotes.html
Mader, S. (2008). Reproductive System and Development and Aging. Human Biology 10th Ed. (p 319-352)
Sexual Development. (2008). www.themediaproject.com/facts/development/lifecycle.htm
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